Texas Military Operations Against Mexico, 1842-1843

Although Sam Houston had advocated peaceful relations with Mexico in his second presidential inaugural message on December 13, 1841, the first two years of his second administration were filled with disturbances between Texas and Mexico.¹ The greater part of the causes underlying these troubles naturally stemmed from the Texas War for Independence; Mexico had never recognized the independence of Texas and still maintained that the Texans were rebels. Texans, on the other hand, not only were convinced of their independent status but wished to extend their boundaries. Past atrocities such as the Goliad and Alamo massacres also had not been forgotten by Texans.¹Houston's Inaugural Address, in Amelia W. Williams and Eugene C. Barker (eds.), Writings of Sam Houston (8 vols.; Austin, 1938-1943), Il, 391-394. See also Houston's message to Congress, ibid., 399-409.

An aggressive Mexican policy had been openly encouraged by President Mirabeau B. Lamar, the second chief executive of the Texas republic. This policy had resulted in the ill-fated Texan Santa Fe Expedition, news of which was just reaching Texas when Houston took office for the second time.² In the face of demands that the Santa Fe Expedition be avenged, President Houston stressed the need for peaceful relations between the two nations, as he felt that only through order and stability fostered by peace could Texas maintain her independent position. Little time elapsed, however, before he was made to realize that such a policy was virtually impossible. Mexican raids upon South Texas once again touched off controversy; these raids in turn led to a series of disastrous expeditions by Texans against Mexico.²For the Santa Fe Expedition see George W. Kendall, Narrative of the Texan Santa Fe Expedition (2 vols.; New York, 1844); William C. Binkley, "New Mexico and the Santa Fe Expedition," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XXVII, 85-107.

The new difficulties with Mexico began in the early spring of 1842. Previously, on January 9, 1842, General Mariano Arista of the Mexican army had issued a proclamation aimed at inhabitants of South Texas. This proclamation informed them that they would receive more benefits from Mexican rule than from the new Republic of Texas and invited them "to abandon the revolutionary government and participate in the Mexican regeneration." When it became clearly evident that South Texans would not respond favorably to the proclamation, a Mexican army of over one thousand men moved into South Texas. Proceeding swiftly, a small body of the main force captured Goliad on March 3, taking several prisoners. Another small group moved to take Refugio on March 5, while the main body under General Rafael Vasquez proceeded toward San Antonio.³³F. C. Chabot, Corpus Christi (San Antonio, 1942), 16; Harry A. Gailey, Jr., "Sam Houston and the Texas War Fever, March-August, 1842," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, LXII, 37-38.

Residents of San Antonio meanwhile had received rumors that a large Mexican army was making its way toward the city and hasty preparations were made, by some for defense and by others for evacuation. So suddenly had the news come, however, that the Mexicans were upon the town before adequate preparations for either its defense or evacuation could be made. On the morning of March 5, Texas scouts operating under the command of John C. "Jack" Hays encountered a white flag borne by a Mexican officer who announced that General Vasquez was in command of fourteen hundred men and would daily receive reinforcements; therefore the immediate and peaceful surrender of the city was demanded.⁴⁴F. C. Chabot (ed.), The Perote Prisoners: Being The Diary of James L. Truehart (San Antonio, 1931), 45; James K. Greer, Colonel Jack Hays (New York, 1952), 64.

Hays had at his command in San Antonio a force of some one hundred men, containing such noted frontiersmen and scouts as French Strother Gray, Henry Clay Davis, John R. Cunningham, Kendrick Arnold, Cornelius Van Ness, and John Twohig. A consultation was held by the Texans, who quickly agreed upon the futility of attempting a defense of the city against such odds.⁵ After destroying valuable military and domestic stores, the Texans withdrew to the Guadalupe River, from whence they were easily able to view the Mexican movements.⁶ The Mexican forces remained in San Antonio for two days and departed on the morning of March 7, taking with them all valuables they could carry.⁵Henderson Yoakum, History of Texas From Its First Settlement in 1685 to Its Annexation to the United States in 1846 (2 vols.; New York, 1855), II, 350.⁶Chabot (ed.), Perote Prisoners, 46.

News of the Vasquez invasion shocked Texans and precipitated the "runaway scrape of 1842." President Houston, who had hoped for peace, appealed to the American people for aid and sent agents to the United States to receive contributions and procure volunteers. A general call to arms was issued, requiring all volunteer troops to be armed and provisioned for a campaign of three months.⁷ General Alexander Somervell, a veteran of the San Jacinto campaign, was placed in command of the army and ordered to San Antonio to take command of forces being gathered there by Vice-President Edward Burleson.⁸ At the same time Houston took steps to have the public archives removed from Austin on the frontier to the city of Houston.⁹⁷See "A General Call to Arms," in Williams and Barker (eds.), Writings of Sam Houston, II, 490-491.⁸For Somervell's difficulties with Burleson and his men, see Gailey, "Sam Houston and the Texas War Fever, March-August, 1842," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, LXII, 39-41.⁹Houston to George W. Hockley, March 10, 1842, in Williams and Barker (eds.), Writings of Sam Houston, I, 495-496. Houston's action in ordering removal of government archives led to the so-called "Archive War." See Houston to Colonel Thomas W. Ward, April 4, 1842, and Houston to Colonel Henry Jones, April 4 1842, ibid., III, 17-19; Executive Proclamation, December 10, 1842, ibid., 228; Houston to House of Representatives, January 4, 1843, ibid., 265; Hope Yager, The Archive War in Texas (Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1939).

Meanwhile, the military situation improved as Vasquez's troops departed from Texas. The Texas congress, which Houston belatedly called into special session, passed a bill giving almost dictatorial powers to President Houston to carry on an offensive war against Mexico. Such a war would be supported by the sale of some ten million acres of public land. Feeling that such a measure was both inadequate and unrealistic, Houston vetoed the bill and sharply rebuked the congress.¹⁰ Houston's position was supported by the general public and fears of immediate war soon subsided.¹⁰Houston to House of Representatives, July 22, 1842, in Williams and Barker (eds.), Writings of Sam Houston, III, 116-124.

Although threats of new invasions continued for some months, calmness prevailed on the Texas frontier by the end of August. On September 5, the District Court of Bexar opened its session and business proceeded as usual in the city. Late on the night of the 9th, however, one Antonio Parez warned John W. Smith, in confidence, of the approach of fifteen hundred Mexicans.¹¹ The next morning a public meeting was held with the Parez report being discussed and generally discredited. Nevertheless, the American residents of the city decided to send six scouts under the command of Jack Hays to investigate. The Latin American residents of the city likewise sent out scouts or spies, appointing Don Domingo Bustillo, Don Ignacio Chaves, and another unnamed individual.¹² The general idea of the populace, according to a contemporary, James L. Truehart, was that if a force were approaching it was only a band of robbers who wished to frighten the inhabitants into leaving the town so it could be plundered with impunity.¹³ This belief was further strengthened when it was established that an unidentified group was approaching but had left the main road leading into the city.¹¹E. W. Winkler (ed.), "Hutchinson's Diary, The Bexar and Dawson Prisoners," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XIII, 294.¹²Ibid.¹³Chabot (ed.), Perote Prisoners, 92.

The American residents determined to remain and defend the city should the invaders reach San Antonio. A small group agreed to sleep on their arms at Samuel A. Maverick's house, situated on the corner of the public square, while a larger group would rendezvous at the appointed place on the following morning. The Mexicans, numbering about one hundred and twenty-five men, likewise promised to defend the city and agreed to meet at the courthouse.¹⁴ Everything was thus arranged for the next day.¹⁴Ibid.

At daylight on the morning of September 11, the men of San Antonio were aroused from their slumbers by the firing of a cannon almost at the edge of town. This was succeeded almost immediately by the sounds of martial music and of moving men. A dense fog, however, obscured from actual view the men who were moving into the square. The Texans opened fire upon the invaders, only to have the fire returned with rapid discharge. According to W. E. Jones, a participant, "the firing lasted a few minutes when the fog disappearing proved to us that we were surrounded on all sides by bodies of regular troops.¹⁵ One of the invaders, carrying a white flag and followed by Colonel Carrasco, a Mexican officer, inquired of the Texans, "What foolishness is this?" and then proceeded to tell them that they were fighting against a force of fifteen hundred men under the command of General Adrian Woll.¹⁶¹⁵Charles A. Gulick and others (eds.), The Papers of Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar (6 vols.; Austin, 1921-1928), IV, 35.¹⁶Chabot (ed.), Perote Prisoners, 95.

Finding that further opposition to such a formidable invading force would be useless, the defenders of the city dispatched three of their party to treat with the invaders. Upon reaching General Woll, the Texans were informed that twelve Mexican soldiers had been killed by the volley from the Texans and thus any request for retirement from the city by the Texans would be refused. The Mexican commander did, however, promise that if the arms of the defenders were delivered he would spare the Texans their lives and treat them not as prisoners of war but as gentlemen. To this proposal the defenders acquiesced, marching to the courthouse where their arms were surrendered.¹⁷¹⁷Ibid., 96. See also Joseph M. Nance (ed.), "Brigadier General Adrian Woll's Report of His Expedition into Texas in 1842", Southwestern Historical Quarterly, LVIII, 530-533, for Woll's account of the surrender.

Soon the captured Texans were to learn that General Woll was not to keep his generous promises, for on Wednesday, the 14th, they were informed that they must leave for the Rio Grande. Still, Woll did not tell them of their true destination but promised them that upon their arrival at the Rio Grande they would be released by his superior, General Reyes.¹⁸ The long journey, which was finally to culminate in Perote Prison, began on September 15. The San Antonio prisoners were under guard of one hundred and twenty-five men, commanded by Captain Emeterio Posas, "an ignorant man who had risen from the ranks after nearly thirty years' service."¹⁹ The entire march of the prisoners was to take over three months and cover over a thousand miles.²⁰¹⁸Gulick and others (eds.), The Lamar Papers, IV, 36.¹⁹Winkler (ed.), "Hutchinson's Diary", Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XIII, 296.²⁰Chabot (ed.), Perote Prisoners, 102-148.

Meanwhile, before General Woll was able to leave San Antonio he encountered strong opposition from other Texas forces. The report of his arrival had reached Gonzales on September 11, and eighty men under the command of Colonel Mathew Caldwell had set out to meet the enemy. Arriving at Seguin on the 13th, Caldwell was joined by companies commanded by Captain Daniel B. Friar of Cuero, Captain James Bird of Seguin, Adam Sumwalt from Lavaca, and Captain Ewen Cameron from Victoria. Advancing to Salado Creek with over two hundred troops, Caldwell dispatched Hays and fifty scouts to draw the Mexican forces out of San Antonio. As usual Hays succeeded in his task; General Woll, with two hundred cavalry and six hundred infantry, rushed from the town in rapid pursuit of Hays and his scouts, who fell back to the banks of the Salado, where Caldwell had his men well posted for the battle. The Mexicans attacked Caldwell about eleven o'clock in the morning of September 18 and action continued until sunset, when the attackers were forced to fall back because of heavy losses. The Mexicans suffered the loss of some sixty killed and as many wounded; the Texans' losses were one killed and nine wounded.²¹ Thus the Texans had seemingly won an easy and inexpensive victory. Upon retreating, however, Woll's forces fell upon a group of Texans attempting to reach Caldwell and massacred them. This slaughter of helpless Texans, known as the "Dawson Massacre," merits careful study and examination.²¹Yoakum, History of Texas, II, 364.

Captain Nicholas Dawson, an ex-soldier from the United States Army and veteran of San Jacinto, had organized a small group of men from Fayette County to join Caldwell's forces at the Salado. He left La Grange on Friday, September 16, with a small group of men: Jerome B. Alexander, Zed Barclay, and his sons Richard and Robert, William Colton, Robert Eastland, Nathaniel W. Faison, George Hill, David Smith Kornegay, Edward T. Manton, Joseph C. Robinson, Joseph Shaw, and possibly one or two more.²²²²Houston Wade (ed.), The Dawson Men of Fayette County (Houston, 1938), 7.

They proceeded across McAhron's Ferry, where they were joined by John Bradley and Francis E. Brookfield. Next they picked up David Berry and his son-in-law, Harvey Hall, and moved on to the town of Mulberry, where the group added four more volunteers in the persons of Richard McGee, Elam and John Wesley Scallorn, and Thomas Simms. At Plum Grove they were joined by John Dancer and Allen H. Morrell and at Woods Prairie by John Pendleton, Edward and William Trimble, Zadock Woods, Henry Woods, and Norman Woods. Milvern Harrell of Waelder, John Cummings, a Mr. Patteson of Lavaca, and four men from De Witt County, Thomas J. Butler, Elijah Garey, Thomas Rice, and William Savage, helped fill out the ranks of the fast-growing group.²³ Moving along the route to San Antonio, the Dawson group overtook Joe Griffin, the slave of Samuel Maverick. Griffin was carrying ransom money belonging to Mrs. Maverick for the release of her husband and as John Bradley, Mrs. Maverick's brother-in-law, was in the expedition, Griffin joined and later gave a splendid account of himself in battle. Several other men joined the group as it neared Nash's Creek.²³Idid., 8.

At Nash's Creek, Dawson received word from Caldwell urging the group to rush on to the Salado. By the night of September 17, they had arrived at the Cibolo Creek. There a scout, Alsey S. Miller, was sent to locate Caldwell. Miller returned to report the battle in progress. A vote of the group showed the majority heavily in favor of advancing immediately; consequently Dawson led his men on to the Salado in hopes of joining Caldwell's men.²⁴²⁴Idid., 9-11.

In attempting to join the main body, Dawson's party was discovered by the retreating Mexican forces and immediately surrounded. Dawson took his position in a small group of mesquite trees and rallied his men for defense, but the Mexicans, not eager to encounter Texan arms at close quarters after the reverses suffered in the battle with Caldwell, withdrew from the range of the Texans' rifles and poured in a shower of grapeshot from their cannon. Realizing the plight of his unprotected men without artillery support, Dawson sent out a white flag and surrendered his weapons. The Mexicans, however, refused to recognize the truce after the Dawson men had thrown down their weapons and proceeded to charge upon the helpless Texans. Dawson and some thirty-three men were slain in battle; fifteen surrendered; and two escaped unhurt.²⁵ The fifteen who were taken captive were tied with their hands behind them and marched to join Woll's command. Five of them who had been wounded were allowed to remain near the Rio Grande but the others were marched to join the Bexar prisoners whom they overtook at San Fernando.²⁵H. S. Thrall, History of Texas (St. Louis, 1876), 322.

On the morning after the Dawson massacre, Colonel Caldwell sent John Henry Brown, William Burnham, Griffith Jones, and Dr. Caleb S. Brown to investigate the scene of the disaster. According to John Henry Brown, some forty bodies were counted, many of them mutilated beyond recognition. The heads of several were nearly severed from their bodies, and the rain of the previous night gave their bodies a marble-like appearance.²⁶²⁶Wade (ed.), The Dawson Men, 16-18.

The San Antonio raids and the Dawson massacre had caused President Houston to realize that the peaceful policy which he had desired would no longer be possible. On October 3, 1842, he ordered General Alexander Somervell to advance upon the enemy's territory.²⁷ The meeting place of the Texan army was set as San Antonio with volunteers and drafted militia pouring into the city for the proposed expedition. General Somervell and his adjutant, General John Hemphill, did not arrive in San Antonio until November 4, and even then a delay was experienced with a week elapsing before regimental officers were elected. Finally, on November 13, 1842, the force of around eight hundred men moved out from San Antonio with two hundred pack mules and three hundred beeves.²⁸²⁷"Houston to Somervell, October 3, 1842, in Williams and Barker (eds.), Writings of Sam Houston, III, 170-171.²⁸William P. Stapp, The Prisoners of Perote, Containing A Journal Kept by the Author Who Was Captured by the Mexicans ... (Philadelphia, 1845), 22-29.

The expedition moved to the Medina River, where once more the commander delayed the advance. There they remained idle for another week while awaiting the arrival of a piece of artillery from Gonzales.²⁹ To add to the confusion and difficulties which were becoming evident, Captains Samuel Bogart and Jack Hays were quarreling over the command of the scout company. Both had commanded separate companies before the advent of the expedition, but in an attempt to unify his forces General Somervell had joined the two companies under the command of Hays with the understanding that Bogart was to enjoy certain mutual privileges. Yet, when Bogart had given orders to a lieutenant in Hays' command the orders had not been obeyed, causing anger to flare on both sides, with the scout group splitting into two opposite camps.³⁰ Internal dissension, jealousy, and discontent at the slow advance caused many of the men to desire to return home, but as the majority was still for moving ahead to revenge the San Antonio raids the Somervell expedition advanced toward Mexican territory.²⁹2S. B. Hendricks, "The Somervell Expedition to the Rio Grande," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XIII, 117.³⁰Ibid., 118.

By December 7, the force had moved to within six miles of Laredo, which the Mexican forces had been holding. Spies were sent out and returned to report that there was no enemy force of importance in or near Laredo. Occupying the town on the following day, the Texans demanded certain supplies from the local alcalde. When this demand was met on December 9, the majority of the force moved outside the townsite, but some sixty troops returned to the town to plunder. This pillaging of an innocent and helpless town was immediately condemned by the officers of the expedition who made the plunderers stack up their ill-gotten goods in a pile to be returned.

On the morning of December 11, General Somervell, still hesitating and uncertain, carried out a most unmilitary procedure when he allowed his men to decide whether they wished to continue the expedition or not. Some one hundred to two hundred men elected to return home, thus reducing the overall size of the expedition to about five hundred men. Somervell declared that the object of the men remaining in the expedition would be the town of Guerrero, about six miles from the Rio Grande. The river was immediately crossed and the troops headed for Guerrero. A small detachment of Mexicans skirmished with the invaders, but quickly gave up the unequal contest, leaving Guerrero at the mercy of the Texans. The alcalde of the town, placing himself at the service of the invaders, appeared before Somervell. The general, realizing little good and honor could come from sacking the town, made a moderate request for clothing and food for his men who were suffering from the extremities of the Mexican winter.

On December 16, the articles were delivered to the Texans. All parties present witnessed the pitiful and shabby compliance with the original request. J. R. Alexander, a member of the Somervell forces, stated "the first consignment came in, and its inspection brought forth shouts of merriment from some; while others, those in dire need of clothing, vented their disgust in explosions of profanity. The stuff delivered consisted of a lot of old battered garments that would "shame a beggar."³¹ William Stapp, another member of the group, described the articles as "some few dozen battered saddle-blankets, the same number of worn out saddles, a meagre supply of hats and shoes, with about two days' provisions.³²³¹J. R. Alexander, Adventures of A Mier Prisoner (Bandera, 1912), 2.³²Stapp, Prisoners of Perote, 29.

Enraged at the poor compliance by the Mexicans, Somervell ordered the alcalde to pay $5,000 to the invaders in lieu of one hundred horses which the town had agreed to furnish. The alcalde's answer that the town had only $700 which it could pay to its invaders made Somervell furious. Strangely, however, the general was so angry that he simply cursed the alcalde and ordered the expedition to recross the river and head for home.

The order to return home was met with violent disagreement by many of the officers. Those most opposed to a policy of retreat were Captains Ewen Cameron, John Pearson, William Ryan, William Eastland, General Thomas J. Green, and Dr. Richard Brenham.³³ Somervell had become more and more unpopular because of his hesitancy, and as a result the camp was sharply divided over his new orders. Three hundred and four men decided to remain to carry the expedition further into Mexico. Somervell and some two hundred men withdrew toward Texas.³⁴³³Alexander, Adventures of A Mier Prisoner, 3.³⁴Thomas J. Green, Journal of the Texian Expedition Against Mier (New York, 1845), 66.

The men remaining in the expedition chose as their new leader Colonel William S. Fisher, who had served in the Federal War under Antonio Canales two years before and was thus well acquainted with the terrain. Colonel Fisher immediately selected as their next objective the seizure of the town of Mier; thus the expedition was subsequently known as the "Mier Expedition." Thomas J. Green was placed in command of the flotilla of small boats which the Texans had acquired and was charged with moving them down the Rio Grande parallel to the advance of the bulk of the forces by land. The movement against Mier was underway.

On the morning of December 23, the expedition moved to the edge of Mier. By ten o'clock that same day the Texans had occupied the town without resistance. The town was perfectly quiet, and no one seemed disturbed at the sudden invasion by the Texans, who soon learned that General Canales had passed through the town a few days previous with a force superior to their own. Colonel Fisher already knew that General Pedro Ampudia was somewhere in the vicinity with an army nearly ten times as large; consequently, Fisher withdrew his forces to a site four miles east of Mier to await provisions and horses that were promised by the alcalde of the town. As a precautionary measure the alcalde was carried with them with the proviso that he would be released when the town furnished the required goods.³⁵³⁵Stapp, Prisoners of Perote, 31-32.

While retiring from Mier, the Texans captured a Mexican who reported that General Ampudia had entered the town with a force of only a few hundred men. This was the moment the Texans were awaiting; the opportunity to defeat a force of Mexican regulars of almost equal size. Little did the Texans realize that this captured informant was a spy, whose story was contrived by Ampudia himself. The prisoner played his part so well that after questioning him no one doubted the authority of his tale.³⁶³⁶Ibid., 32

After holding an officers council, Colonel Fisher determined to recross the Rio Alcantra and proceed into Mier to take the town from Ampudia. By 4:00 P.M. the Texans had been transported to the opposite shore and moved forward toward the city. Green and a picked company forming the right wing advanced and encountered the enemy pickets before the extreme left wing had completely crossed the river. Then the Texans dashed from cover to cover, making their way into the city. During the dark night little fighting went on but with the returning light of morning the combat commenced in earnest. Fighting continued from house top to house top until around noon. At that time General Ampudia sent in a flag of truce, asking for the cessation of hostilities for an hour. Colonel Fisher, who had been wounded in the fray, readily acceded to the request, believing as did all the Texans, that the Mexicans were desirous of surrendering the town and withdrawing unmolested. This illusion was soon dispelled, as Ampudia demanded the surrender of the Texans. Stating that he had seventeen hundred troops in the city and eight hundred fresh troops from Monterrey nearby, Ampudia stressed the futility of contending any longer against such odds. If the Texans would surrender they should be treated with all the honors and consideration of prisoners of war, and would not be sent to Mexico but kept on the frontier until an exchange could be effected. Should they continue the struggle, however, no quarter would be allowed.³⁷³⁷Green, Journal of the Texian Expedition, 95-96.

Most members of the expedition opposed accepting the surrender proposal as they believed their positions were superior to those of the Mexican forces. Colonel Fisher nevertheless decided to visit the headquarters of the enemy to discuss the nature of the proposed surrender. While he was gone the men favoring a continuation of the struggle made excellent use of the time by persuading some of their reluctant comrades to keep up the contest. This spirit of resistance quickly changed, however, when Fisher returned. Forming the companies in the street to relate his interview with Ampudia, Fisher stressed the hopelessness of the situation and expressed his belief that Ampudia was an honorable man who would live up to any terms of surrender agreed upon.³⁸ Fisher's speech was a deathblow to all further prospect of fighting, for it determined the less bold members to separate from their comrades and to favor surrender.³⁹ Captain Ewen Cameron made a last plea for continued resistance but was overruled and the surrender terms were accepted.⁴⁰³⁸Ibid.³⁹Alexander, Adventures of a Mier Prisoner, 4.⁴⁰Green, Journal of the Texian Expedition, 106-107, gives the terms of the surrender.

After the surrender the Texans were marched to the opposite side of the river, where they joined fellow Texans who had been captured during the fighting of the day and previous night. From two of them the main group learned that the Mexicans had tried the white flag as a last resort. So badly were they defeated that the officers' horses were saddled and held at bridle in readiness for a hurried flight from the city.⁴¹ Thus the Mier expedition had surrendered after having victory almost in its hands.⁴¹Ibid., 95.

On December 31, Ampudia took up the line of march for Matamoros with his prisoners. The highest officers, Fisher, Green, and Adjutant Thomas A. Murray, were kept with the general under the special charge of Captain Clemonte Castro while the other prisoners followed behind on foot and with a heavy guard. By the next morning the group had crossed the Rio San Juan into the town of Camargo, a place of about three thousand inhabitants. At this town commenced the grand show of the prisoners, which was to be kept up during a fifteen hundred mile march to Mexico City. The men were marched through the town and around the military square to the accompaniment of ringing bells, firing of crackers and guns, and the "vivas" of the populace. From Camargo the prisoners marched to New Reynosa, where once more triumphal arches, mottoes of glory and honor, and the firing of guns celebrated their capture.

Continuing their slow journey to Matamoros, the captives encountered various scenes. Frequent peddlers met the group along the roadside to sell eggs, tortillas, goat milk, and cheese to those prisoners who had money.⁴² To add to their further discomfort, they were quartered each night in a cowpen, which could be easily guarded by the Mexican forces. This accounts for the differences in each day's march, as some localities did not possess large enough pens to quarter all the captives.⁴²Alexander, Adventures of A Mier Prisoner, 5.

At the town of Matamoros the Texans were informed that they must prepare for immediate march to Mexico City. Fisher and Green were told by General Ampudia that their position would be in advance of the other men, as hostages for their good conduct. Protests from all the officers were registered at this disregard of the promise to allow the prisoners to remain near the border for future prisoner exchange, but the protests were of little avail, with the march for Mexico City beginning the morning of January 10.⁴³⁴³Chabot (ed.), Perote Prisoners, 69.

As the prisoners moved slowly along the road to Mexico City numerous fears and doubts entered their minds. Seldom had their captors kept their word in the past; what would be their fate in Mexico City? By February 2, an attack upon the guards was contemplated by the Texans who eagerly awaited a lapse in vigilance by their captors. This opportunity came on February 10, when the majority of prisoners led by Captain Cameron rushed their guards. Rapidly crushing all opposition, the Texans were soon in command of the situation. Captain Romano, charged with guarding the advanced group including Green and Fisher, ordered this group on ahead away from the revolt. As a result there was no opportunity for the captives to rescue their highest officers. Only by pleas and arguments did Green and Fisher remain alive as Romano had orders from his superior officer to execute the two if the prisoners did attempt to escape.⁴⁴⁴⁴Green, Journal of the Texian Expedition, 145-147.

Once freed the Mier prisoners immediately took up the line of march for home. One hundred and ninety-three men, leaving behind eighteen wounded and three dead, reached the hacienda San Salvador by midnight, where they bought corn for themselves and their horses. On February 13, the Texans were on the Monclova road from Saltillo, where they encountered a European who warned them by all means to keep on the road. Unfortunately, the men had been taught from sad experience to believe no one and as a result prevailed upon Captain Cameron to take to the mountains, leaving the road which might be covered by Mexican troops. Cameron was bitterly opposed to this plan but several officers informed him that unless he followed such a policy they would draw off their companies and leave his command.⁴⁵ Against his better judgment, Cameron surrendered to unity and led his men into the mountains.⁴⁵Joseph D. McCutchan, Narrative of the Mier Expedition (Galveston, 1844), 101.

The Texans soon learned that Cameron had been correct in his desire to follow the highway. By the end of the second day there was no water to be found and the extremes of daytime heat and nighttime cold added to the discomfort of the group. By the third day some of the men were chewing and eating negro-head and prickly pear leaves, hoping to produce moisture in their mouths. But these plants only aggravated their sufferings and delirium seized many of the men who began drinking their own urinary secretion. Several died, and others prayed for death to end their sufferings.⁴⁶⁴⁶Green, Journal of the Texian Expedition, 163-164.

Continued distress caused the desperate Texans to split into groups to hunt for water and a way out of the mountains. On the afternoon of February 18, one group discovered a large column of smoke. Supposing it to be a signal from another group, a messenger was sent to Captain Cameron. About eight o'clock that night the group had advanced near enough to the fire to ascertain it to be the camp of a Mexican cavalry unit. Endeavors were made by the Texans to get around the camp, but the pass ahead was guarded by another camp of the enemy. The only recourse left for the exhausted Texans was to surrender. One tiny party was not captured, however, and made its way home after countless sufferings.⁴⁷⁴⁷Ibid., 164-165; Alexander, Adventures of A Mier Prisoner, 8.

The Texans who were prisoners once more were taken to Saltillo. There, on March 2, they learned that an order had arrived from Mexico City calling for the death of every tenth man among the prisoners. As officials at Saltillo had grown to like and respect Cameron and his men, petitions were sent back to the capital begging for the cancellation of the order. Meanwhile, the march for Mexico City was resumed.

Arriving at Salado on March 24, the Mier prisoners learned that the order demanding the death of each tenth man had not been withdrawn and would be executed immediately. The method for selecting which members would be shot was an unusual one. One hundred and fifty-seven white beans and seventeen black beans were placed in an earthen jar or mug. Then the prisoners were lined up and made to draw one bean each, the black ones signifying death to the men who drew them.

Captain Cameron was the first to draw, thrusting his hand into the mug and drawing out a white bean.⁴⁸ He was followed by Colonel William F. Wilson, Captain William Ryan, and Judge F. M. Gibson, who likewise drew white beans. Next came Captain William Eastland, who became the first of the group to draw a black bean. Then followed the remainder of the men and a scene of rejoicing and despair as individuals drew the white and black beans. The doomed men were conducted to the eastern wall of the garrison where they were made to kneel down, their eyes blindfolded, and then shot by an infantry company. Victims of this atrocity were Thomas L. Jones, James M. Ogden, John S. Cash, Patrick Malver, Henry Whaling, Major Robert Dunham, William Rowan, Major J. D. Cooke, Robert Harris, James Torrey, J. M. Thompson, C. M. Roberts, James Turnbull, E. E. Esta, Captain William Eastland, M. C. Wing, and James L. Shepherd.⁴⁹⁴⁸In his record of events, Green indicated the beans were not shaken but the black ones laid on top since the officers drew first. Journal of the Texian Expedition, 170. Stapp, Prisoners of Perote, 72-73, disputes this version, stating that the beans were shaken well before each draw.⁴⁹Green, Journal of the Texian Expedition, 172; Stapp, Prisoners of Perote, 74.

The remaining prisoners were once more set upon their way to Mexico City. The journey was to last until September 21, when they reached Perote Prison which was to be the site of their imprisonment. Little eventful happened during the latter part of this long journey except the execution of Captain Ewen Cameron who had escaped the black bean lottery. For his leadership in the Salado escape he was to suffer the loss of his life as the Mexican government ordered his death after he had survived the drawing of the black beans.

Inside the infamous Perote Prison,⁵⁰ the Mier prisoners found themselves with other Texans who had suffered from Mexican treachery. For an entire winter and spring the prisoners remained in this place. In March, 1844, through the work and efforts of Waddy Thompson, United States minister to Mexico, the Bexar prisoners were released. Several months elapsed before the other prisoners were released, during which time General Green and fifteen men made a bold escape.⁵¹ Late in 1844, the sufferings of the Mier captives were ended by release of all prisoners.⁵²⁵⁰For a description of Perote Prison see J. J. McGrath and Walace Hawkins, "Perote Prison--Where Texans Were Imprisoned," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XLVIII, 340-845. See also L. U. Spellman (ed.), "Letters of the 'Dawson Men' From Perote Prison, Mexico, 1842-1843." Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XXXVIII, 246-269.⁵¹Stapp, Prisoners of Perote, 123-124; Green, Journal of the Texian Expedition, 296-326.⁵²Various groups and leaders favored another expedition into Mexico to get revenge and to rescue the Mier group, but President Houston, who considered the march to Mier after Somervell's withdrawal as disobedience of orders, refused to allow other groups to set out. To him, such an expedition would be repeating the mistake of its predecessor. Texas was not financially able to carry on aggressive warfare deep in the enemy's country. The only recourse for the release of the Mier prisoners lay in the aid of foreign powers. Houston and other Texas officials consequently requested Washington and London to use their good offices in Mexico in an attempt to secure release of the prisoners. Houston to the Governments of Great Britain, France, and the United States, October 15, 1842, in Williams and Barker (eds.), Writings of Sam Houston, III, 179-184; Annual Message to Congress, December 1, 1842, ibid., 203-210; Message to Congress, December 22, 1842, ibid., 246-247; Proclamation Demanding Release of Mexican Prisoners in Teras, September 4, 1843, ibid., 427-428.

While the San Antonio and Mier prisoners were languishing in Mexican prisons, other Texans were leading military expeditions against Mexico. Although President Houston had hoped for peace with Mexico and had never condoned the Mier expedition after its commander, Somervell, had withdrawn, commissions were thereafter issued for attacks upon Mexican territory and property. The holder of one such commission was Charles A. Warfield, who had been given a colonel's commission and ordered by the Secretary of War and Marine to work in the direction of Santa Fe. To aid his cause Warfield gathered men from Arkansas, Missouri, and the Rocky Mountains area. At the junction of the Rio de las Animas and the Arkansas River, Warfield gathered twenty-one men and headed south where he was to join a larger group coming up from Texas to serve in the expedition. While waiting for the group to come from the south, Warfield and his men surprised the New Mexican outpost of Mora and killed five soldiers. The Warfield forces were in command of the post but, hearing of reinforcements for the Mexicans, they fled, losing their horses in the fray. They moved on to Bent's Fort, but still the Texans did not come; consequently, on May 29, 1843, Warfield disbanded his tiny group.⁵³ Several members of his party, including Warfield himself, later joined the Snively expedition which stopped at Bent's Fort a few weeks later.⁵³William C. Binkley, "The Last Stage of Texan Military Operations Against Mexico, 1843," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, XXII, 264-265. For the legal aspects of the Warfield expedition, see William C. Binkley, The Expansionist Movement in Texas, 1836-1850 (Berkeley, 1925), 107-108.

The Snively expedition was different from the Warfield expedition in that it had a single definite objective, a rich Mexican merchant caravan which was moving from Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe. This caravan had passed from Santa Fe to Independence in 1842 with one hundred and fifty thousand dollars which was converted to merchandise in eastern cities. Then the train with its loaded wagons had to pass back through Texas territory to reach Santa Fe. President Houston and other Texans felt that the capture of the train would be both profitable and just, since it passed through Texas territory without payment of customs duties. Colonel Jacob Snively made application to lead a party in capturing the caravan, and on February 16, 1843, he was authorized by the Secretary of War and Marine to do so. Not only was the profit motive involved but also

...the object of the expedition is to retaliate and make reclamation for the injuries sustained by Texan citizens, the merchandise and other property of all Mexican citizens will be a lawful prize, and such as may be captured will be brought into Red River, one half of which will be deposited in the Custom House of that District, subject to the orders of the Government, and the other half will belong to the captors to be equally divided between Officers and men.⁵⁴⁵⁴Letter of Instructions to Snively, in George P. Garrison (ed.), Diplomatic Correspondence of the Republic of Texas (3 vols.; Washington, 1908-1911; Annual Report of American Historical Association for 1907 and 1908), II (1), Pt. 2, 218.

Volunteers for the Snively expedition assembled at Georgetown, six miles from Coffee's station near present-day Denison. Since the men had to equip and provision themselves, they unanimously rejected the order that one-half of the spoils be turned over to the government. A set of by laws were adopted and on April 25 the group of about one hundred seventy-five men set out for the Santa Fe trail.⁵⁵ Moving along the old Chihuahua trail, Snively reached the Arkansas River by May 27, and camped on the right bank.⁵⁶ Soon he met some men from Bent's Fort who reported that the Mexican caravan was expected to pass the Texan camp on its return to Santa Fe in about eighteen days. Snively immediately sent out spies who ascertained the number of the Mexican guard to be six hundred. As the caravan was still deep inside United States territory there was nothing for the Texans to do but wait.⁵⁵See H. Bailey Carroll, "Steward A. Miller and the Snively Expedition," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, LIV, 267, for the matter of exact numbers in the expedition. Carroll's article and the accompanying account of the expedition by one of its members, Steward A. Miller, are essential for any understanding of the Snively expedition.⁵⁶For the route followed by the Snively expedition, see ibid., 268-272.

On June 17, the Texans received news that the caravan, composed of sixty wagons, was slowly approaching. It was also learned that Captain Phillip St. George Cooke and a body of United States dragoons accompanied the wagons as an escort. On June 20, the Texans defeated the Mexican advance guard but still the caravan did not come. A skirmish with the Indians and the failure to receive any news of the caravan caused some of the Snively men to decide to withdraw. About seventy men chose Captain Eli Chandler their leader and started upon the trail for home.⁵⁷⁵⁷"Carroll, ibid., 281, notes that instead of heading for Texas Chandler led his followers back toward Arkansas.

Captain Cooke and his dragoons appeared on June 30. An officer was dispatched by Cooke to the Snively encampment for the purpose of ascertaining who the Texans were and why they were there. This officer proceeded to inform the Texans that they were on United States soil and must surrender their arms. Snively protested this decision, assuring the American officer that they were on Texas soil. The Americans adopted a firm attitude, however, refusing to consider the question. Weakened by the loss of seventy of his men to the Chandler group, Snively necessarily acquiesced to Cooke's demands, as Cooke had one hundred and ninety-six mounted regular troops and the advantage of two pieces of field artillery.⁵⁸⁵⁸Snively to George W. Hill, Secretary of War and Marine, July 9, 1843, in Garrison (ed.), Diplomatic Correspondence, II, 218-220. The Texans actually kept most of their arms, turning over to Cooke instead those weapons previously taken from the Mexicans. For the controversy between Texas and the United States over Cooke's actions see Houston to Congress, December 12, 1843, in Williams and Barker (eds.), Writings of Sam Houston, III, 464-465; Jones to Van Zandt, September 29, 1843, in Garrison (ed.), Diplomatic Correspondence, II, 215; and Calhoun to Van Zandt, April 24, 1844, ibid., 301-302.

The next day Captain Cooke reappeared before the Snively group. Having considered the hazards of the Texans' long journey home, Cooke offered all who wished it an escort to St. Louis. Forty-two of the Snively men accepted this offer.⁵⁹ The other Texans chose to attempt the journey home and proceeded in hopes of rejoining Chandler.⁵⁹John Henry Brown, Indian Wars and Pioneers of Texas (Austin, 1816), 93.

On July 3, Snively and his party rejoined Chandler and members of his group.⁶⁰ Still there lingered in Snively's mind a possible hope of capturing the caravan, probably after the United States dragoons left that body. An Indian attack on July 4, however, ended all possibilities of such a plan.⁶¹⁶⁰Snively to Hill, July 9, 1843, in Garrison (ed.), Diplomatic Correspondence, II, 220.⁶¹J. W. Wilbarger, Indian Depredations in Texas (Austin, 1935), 53.

After the fight with the Comanches on Owl Creek, Snively and his party headed southward for home. Traveling eight or ten days, they halted on Antelope Creek, a small tributary of the Canadian River. There they hoped to rest their weary mounts, but once more fate was against them for a large group of three or four hundred Comanches attacked them.⁶² The fight continued for several hours with the Indians showing little inclination to rush the Texans. Believing the Indians to be receiving reinforcements for the next day's struggle, Snively and his men withdrew under cover of darkness and once more struggled on the homeward trail. Finally, on August 6, the remainder of the Snively expedition arrived in the confines of Bird's Fort. As its predecessors, the Snively expedition had resulted in utter failure.⁶²Ibid., 54.

Two years of military operations by Texas against Mexico had accomplished little and had settled none of the basic differences between the two nations. The subsequent annexation of Texas by the United States would only add to the existing difficulties and ultimately lead to a full scale war.